Operational Amplifier and Oscillators: Virtual ground concept, output offset voltage and CMRR of op-amp and Positive feedback and Barkhausen criteria for oscillations

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What is an Op-Amp ? Low cost integrating circuit consisting of: Transistors Resistors Capacitors Able to amplify a signal due to an external power supply Name derives from its use to perform operations on a signal. Applications of Op-Amps Adder Subtraction Comparators Multiplication/ Division Integrators Differentiators Analog to Digital Converters Pin configuration of op amp … Read more

Interpolation and Approximation: Numerical Differentiation and Regression

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INTERPOLATION Introduction The process of estimating intermediate values between given data points is called Interpolation . The most common method used for this purpose is Polynomial Interpolation. Find the functional value for đť‘Ą = 2.5 , i.e. đť‘“ 2.5 = ? Is this a problem of Interpolation or extrapolation?? đť‘Ą 1 3 4 6 9 … Read more

Introduction to EDM, Theodolite and Total station

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Principle of Electronic Distance Measurement and Use of EDM: Electronic distance measurement(EDM) is a method of determining the length between two points using electromagnetic waves. EDM is commonly carried out with digital instruments called theodolites. EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient pieces of surveying equipment and can be used to measure distance of upto … Read more

Theory of Probability

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Probability: The probability theory provides a means of getting an idea of the likelihood of occurrence of different events resulting from a random experiment in terms of quantitative measures ranging between zero and one. The probability is zero for an impossible event and one for an event which is certain to occur. Some terminologies: Random … Read more

Turbulent flow : Prandtl’mixing length theory, Darcy-Weisbach equation, Nikuradse’ experiment, Colebrook-White and use of Moody’s diagram

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Turbulent Flow: Turbulent flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in zigzag way. The fluid particle crosses the paths of each other. The Reynolds number (Re) is greater than 4000 then the flow is said to be turbulent. For example: a. Flow in river at the time of … Read more

Bipolar Junction Transistor: Current Flow Mechanism in NPN and PNP, Common Base and Emitter Configuration

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Introduction TO Bipolar Junction Transistor The transistor is a solid- state device whose operation depends upon the flow of electric charge carries within the solid. A transistor consists of two P-N junctions formed by sandwiching either P-type or N-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly, there are two types of transistors, namely: 1. … Read more

Flow Through Pipes

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Introduction to pipe flow: A pipe is a closed conduit (channel) which is used for carrying fluids under pressure. Pipes are commonly circular in section. The fluid in the pipes are subjected to frictional resistance due to shear stress. Reynolds experiment and flow based on Reynolds number.  Reynolds experiment is used to display laminar, transion … Read more

Semiconductor Diode : Intrinsic and Extrinsic

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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor Intrinsic conductor An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its extremely pure form. A semiconductor is not truly intrinsic unless its impurity content is less than one part in 100 million parts of semiconductor. In an intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature, hole electron pairs … Read more

Engineering geology in Himalayas

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Formation of Himalaya Shifting of Indian plate Block Diagram of The Himalaya The Nepal Himalaya • The longest division of the Himalaya• Extended about 800 Km• Starts from west at the Mahakali River• Ends at the east by the Tista River Longitudinal Division of Himalayan Range Terai Zone (Gangetic Plain) • Northern Terai(Bhabhar Zone)• Middle … Read more

Solution of Non- Linear Equation

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Bisection Method: This method is based on the repeated application of intermediate value property. Let, F(x) be continuous between a and b. Consider, F(a) be negative and F(b) be positive. Then, the first approximation of the root is x1= (a+b)/2 , if F(x1)= 0 then x1 is root of F(x)=0. Otherwise, the root lies between … Read more